Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration

Sakamoto Ryoma is big in Japan right now with the current Taiga drama Ryomaden. But even before this drama, Ryoma was probably the most famous and popular historical figure in Japanese history. Why is that and is his popularity deserved? Recently I read Marius Jansen's book Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration. Jansen, who passed away in 2000, was a professor of Japanese History at Princeton University and author of more than twenty books of which this book he is probably best known for. First published in 1961, this book is still considered one of the excellent sources regarding the Bakumatsu period. In Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration, Jansen describes the societal transformation from the late Tokugawa Bakufu through the restoration of power to the Emperor. Jansen focused mainly on Sakamoto Ryoma but also devoted much of the book to Nakaoka Shintaro, another important figure in Meiji Restoration or Bakumatsu period. The title of the book really could have been Sakamoto Ryoma, Nakaoka Shintaro and the Meiji Restoration. Jansen begins by covering the political and economic situation of Japan in general and then moves to the political and economic issues in the domain of Tosa, Ryoma's home. Finally Jansen narrows the focus of the book further to that of the actions of the shishi and specifically of Ryoma and Shintaro. The shishi were the samurai, often ronin, who worked and fought for the overthrow of the Tokugawa Bakufu and the restoration of the emperor. One of the aspects I like about this book is how Jansen wrote it in a manner that could be easily understood by readers who may not be well-versed in Japanese history or the Bakumatsu period.

I am not going to detail the events of the Bakumatsu that Jansen covers in the book since these events are already so well known. I will highlight some interesting points I took from the book and use the book to try and answer some questions about Sakamoto Ryoma. It would be an understatement to say that Sakamoto Ryoma is one of the key figures in the Meiji Restoration period. Sakamoto Ryoma is a political hero in Japan and even a celebrity star. You can find his name and face everywhere. His grave site in Kyoto is a popular destination and although Nakaoka Shintaro is also buried there, visitors often leave with Sakamoto Ryoma merchandise which they purchase nearby. I am pretty sure there are not too many people buying Nakaoka Shintaro merchandise. This raises questions such as why is the popularity of Ryoma so high and is it deserved? How much of a contribution did Ryoma actually make to the events of the time?And how original were some of Ryoma's important ideas?

Jansen describes Ryoma's development from the early years of the Bakumatsu period when loyalist parties were being formed. He points out that both Ryoma and Shintaro were not so much innovators as they were followers of the opinion of their peers during this early time. They were literate but by no measure were they intellectuals. Even a few years later, a friend of Ryoma's, Hirai Shujiro, warned his sister against getting involved in Ryoma's plans: "Although Ryoma is a splendid fellow, he doesn't have any learning, and therefore he sometimes makes serious mistakes" (p80). One of the best examples of Ryoma's lack of political knowledge and education in his early years was his famous meeting with a group of samurai from Mito domain who had traveled to Tosa to win support for their loyalist cause. Ryoma and several others traveled to the Tosa border to meet with the Mito group. The diary of one of the Mito messengers revealed the lack of political awareness of the the Tosa group in 1858. "The two outsiders [Tosa men]," he wrote, "don't know a thing about their han's affairs; Ryoma doesn't even know the names of any of the ministers" (p89-90). Clearly Ryoma was not one of the most brilliant people around in his younger years. He was not highly educated and his writing ability was poor. Jansen describes Ryoma's letters to his sister as awkward and his vocabulary was limited. He certainly was not a person developing creative philosophies or ideas. So how did Ryoma come to be such an important figure?

In 1862, Ryoma fled Tosa. But the following months showed how little he realized the complexity of the problems facing Japan. Following the logic of a simple swordsman, Ryoma concluded that assassinating the "cowardly leaders" was the best course of action and his target would be Katsu Kaishu, a leading Tokugawa official. It is at this point according to Jansen that we see for the first time Ryoma's ability to adapt and learn. When confronted with evidence that he was wrong about Kaishu, Ryoma reconsiders his goal and decides to become Kaishu's disciple. Jansen states that this event showed Ryoma's growing sophistication and maturity (p153). Jansen also points out that one of the most important aspects of Ryoma's development was the fact that his duties for Kaishu brought him into contact with some of the most enlightened Tokugawa councillors where he first heard the possibility of a peaceful transfer of power from shogun to emperor. Already by 1863 as Ryoma continued to develop, Kaishu began entrusting him with more responsible and difficult missions (p169). Clearly Kaishu saw something in Ryoma to trust him with these types of assignments. Although Ryoma was not well educated, Kaishu's trust in him showed that Ryoma had other strong qualities. Ryoma's qualities lay in the fact that he was skilled at developing relationships which indicates that he probably had a high level of emotional intelligence.

Under Kaishu, Ryoma continued to refine and moderate his own political thinking. However, by late 1864 Kaishu was dismissed from his post and Ryoma was now back on his own as a ronin. But this now eventually brings Ryoma under the protection of Satsuma and the beginning of his important relationship with that domain. And as we all know, Ryoma may be most famous for his work in bringing about the Satsuma-Choshu alliance. The Sat-Cho alliance is certainly one of the most important events during the Bakumatsu period so the question is really how important was Ryoma in bringing this together? The fact is Ryoma was not solely responsible for bringing Satsuma and Choshu together. Although a quick scan of the internet for Sakamoto Ryoma would often tell you that he was. Nakaoka Shintaro joined the Choshu loyalists during the same time that Ryoma was working with Satsuma and he worked to convince the Choshu leaders of the importance of an alliance (p186). In addition, other Tosa Loyalists worked towards this alliance by working closely with the Kyoto nobles who had been expelled from the capital. I don't think this should take away from what Ryoma was able to accomplish or the significance of his role. However, at the very least Shintaro should be given as much credit for his work as Ryoma. In some ways, Shintaro's assignment was even more difficult than Ryoma's. Shintaro had to convince a Choshu domain whose bitterness and hatred towards Satsuma was strong due to Satsuma previously siding with the Bakufu in expelling Choshu forces from Kyoto.

Ryoma is of course known for more than just his work in bringing about the Sat-Cho alliance. He is also known for his efforts in developing a modern navy and the Kaientai, the naval auxiliary unit that also would later become one of the first modern corporations in Japan. I am not going to get into those accomplishments of Ryoma but rather his development of the Eight-Point Plan for which he his also famous for. Jansen states that Ryoma's ideas formed during his years of service with Kaishu where he was exposed to the idea that the shogun should resign in favor of the emperor. He had also become familiar with the idea of a conciliar form of government from bakufu officials such as Okubo Ichio who had developed ideas about a council of lords (p294). Similar ideas were also proposed by others such as lord Matsudaira Shungaku. Ryoma's time in Nagasaki also exposed him to many more ideas regarding new forms of government. It was in Nagasaki where Ryoma met Nagaoka Kenkichi who some believe was the person who first wrote the plan for a new government which came to be known as Sakamoto's Eight-Point Plan. However, Jansen states that regardless of who it was who worded the Eight-Point Plan, there can be no doubt that it represented ideas toward which Ryoma had been reaching for several years (p295).

So why is Ryoma so much more famous than Nakaoka Shintaro and the many other important players involved in the Meiji Restoration? Jansen provides some excellent examples for why Ryoma became so popular. Following the assassination of Ryoma and Shintaro, Jansen states "Restoration leaders lamented the loss of both shishi. Iwakura particularly regretted the death of Nakaoka, but on the whole Sakamoto Ryoma's warm and engaging personality won him more eulogies, as they had won him more friends" (p345). "Nakaoka was a sage," Tanaka Koken wrote, "Sakamoto a real hero." As Jansen states, "Ryoma's romantic career and bouyant, self-confidant bearing and correspondence lent themselves well to the image the nation wished to hold of its Restoration shishi." Another interesting point that Jansen mentions regarding Ryoma's popularity is his lack of involvement with the Meiji government. Ryoma may not have wanted to participate in the new government even had he not been assassinated. But the fact that he was never a part of the new Meiji government meant that his image would never be tainted by the negative politics and issues of the new government.

So does Ryoma's fame exceed his actual contributions during the restoration period? Of course it does. His likeness is everywhere in Japan including on toilet paper and candy wrappers. He is probably the most famous and popular figure in Japanese history. He is far more famous and popular than other Bakumatsu figures, especially Nakaoka Shintaro, even though Shintaro and others probably contributed as much to the restoration as Sakamoto Ryoma did.

Was Ryoma the originator of the major ideas that he is known for such as the Eight-Point Plan? I think it's safe to say that no, he was not an originator of the ideas he is known for but rather modified and refined these ideas. Marius Jansen says as much when he states that Kenkichi may have actually conceived of the idea of the Eight-Point Plan.

The reality of Ryoma in Japan is overshadowed by his myth and dramatic storytelling. Shiba Ryotaro's eight volume novel Ryoma ga Yuku is probably the biggest reason for Ryoma's fame and popularity in post-war Japan. Although Ryotaro's work is fiction and he took much poetic license when he wrote it, the novel still contributed greatly to Ryoma's legend and popularity. But hold on all you Ryoma fans out there. Don't come banging down my door just yet. The fact is Ryoma WAS one of the most significant figures during the Bakumatsu. His personality, his character, his ability to develop relationships and create alliances allowed him to do what few others could have done. Maybe the Sat-Cho alliance would have materialized eventually without Ryoma's efforts. But without his work, it would probably not have happened when it did. And maybe Ryoma did not originate the Eight-Point Plan. But as Jansen described, Ryoma modified it and expanded on it and he used his abilities to convince others of the viability of this plan including his lord Yamauchi Yodo who took the plan to the shogun and convinced him to resign his powers to the emperor. He was probably the only one who could have done that at that time and had he not, the end of the Bakumatsu likely would have been far bloodier. I think you will find many examples throughout history of famous historical figures who may not have developed many of the original ideas they are known for but they took those ideas and improved on them or used their charisma and skill to carry them through. Sakamoto Ryoma is no different. Marius Jansen did an excellent job showing how Ryoma grew and developed from a young, ignorant samurai from Tosa to a person respected by some of the most powerful figures of the Bakumatsu period. That by itself demonstrates how significant a person Sakamoto Ryoma was.

Obama's bow

Did Obama overdo it when he bowed deeply to the Japanese Emperor during his recent visit? Credit for this post and photos goes to Anthony Bryant over at Samurai Archives.

There is some controversy in the States with how the President of the United States has bowed to foreign royalty, especially after he bowed deeply to the Saudi King earlier this year. I have less of a problem with the bow to the Japanese Emperor but I do think that Obama is overdoing it and the President of the United States should not be bowing the way he has. Below are some other world leaders meeting the Emperor. You be the judge.

Former Russian President Putin

Former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert

The King of Morocco

Obama: "Excuse me Emperor, I seemed to have lost a contact lens. Don't move."

Hikone attempts to rehab image of Japanese dictator

An interesting article in the Japan Times describes how Hikone in Shiga Prefecture is attempting to strengthen ties with Hagi in Yamaguchi Prefecture in order to overcome past differences. The differences arose during the Ansei Purge (1858-1859). Fuedal Lord Ii Naosuke of Hikone, the highest ranking retainer of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the defacto ruler due to the young age of the Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi, executed dozens of political leaders and opponents of his policies. Included among those executed was Yoshida Shoin of the Hagi Domain.

The main reason for the opposition to Naosuke was his signing of a treaty to open trade with the United States after U.S. Commodore Perry opened up Japan with the threat of force. Shoin, who was a samurai intellectual from Hagi, opposed the treaty with the United States. For this, Naosuke had Shoin executed.

The article states that the Hikone municipal government is holding a series of events commemorating the 150th anniversary of Naosuke's efforts to open Japan to the rest of the world including the promotion of friendship between Hikone and Hagi by expressing its condolences over the death of Shoin.

What is interesting is that Hikone is holding these events in order to rehabilitate the image of Naosuke from that of a brutal dictator. Interesting because the many books I have read about this time period have explained pretty clearly what a brutal dictator Naosuke was.

However, Hikone's attempts to rehab Naosuke's image may not be that inappropriate. Clearly his tactics for achieving his goals were extreme and brutal. But today there is little debate that Naosuke's attempts to open the country were necessary and far sighted. He was pragmatic and knew that Japan needed to open up to the rest of the world and to modernize if they were to avoid foreign domination at the hands of the Americans and other western powers.

Although Naosuke's purge was successful in silencing his high ranking samurai opponents, it did not have the same effect on the lower samurai. In March of 1860, Naosuke was attacked by a band of 17 young samurai loyalists from the Mito Domain and cut down in front of one of the gates of the Shogun's Edo castle.

Naosuke's murder crushed any hope of the resurgence of power to the dying Tokugawa shogunate. His death led to eight years of loyalist samurai terrorism across Japan and the restoration of rule to the Emperor in 1868.

Japanese Warlord Plays Kickball

Oda Nobunaga, one of the most feared and powerful warlords in Japanese history, liked a good game of kickball. "Kickball?" you say. "Did it even exist 450 years ago?" Well, apparently it did.

According to the book, Japonius Tyrannus, kickball had been an aristocratic pastime since the late Heian period (794-1185) and surprisingly Nobunaga, a passionate hunter and sumo fan, displayed an interest in this rather static and ceremonial sport.

Nobunaga actively involved himself with the court such as in 1575 when he organised a match between leading nobles at the grounds of the temple Shokokuji. Nobunaga used these matches as well as the Tea Ceremony to establish or strengthen political bonds, or to associate with people from outside the warrior class: with merchants in the case of tea, and with nobles in the case of kickball.

The kickball matches also allowed Nobunaga to famliarize himself with the various court nobles. At the time, one of the players, Asukai Masanori (1520-94), served as Crown Prince Sanehito's special envoy to Nobunaga. The Asukai family had earned a dominant position as 'masters of kickball' in the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573), thanks to the sponsorship of successive emperors and the Ashikaga shoguns. Nobunaga continued this shogunal sponsorship of the Asukai, even calling himself Masanori's 'kickball pupil' on one occasion.

I think it would have been pretty cool to have played kickball with the great warlord Nobunaga. I would be careful to always let him win of course.

Origin of the Samurai

Prior to the 9th century in Japan, the Nara and Kyoto courts used the Chinese model of waging war which was the use of an army conscripted from the peasantry. But this proved to not be sufficient to deal with situations that arose, so instead the government began to grant commissions to make war on local landowners and then rewarded them for their trouble. So, instead of controlling the clans, the imperial court's military needs now encouraged them. The clans elite warriors, who rode horses and used bows were the forerunners of the samurai.

The 9th century was a time of upheavals and economic decline due to plagues and episodes of starvation. Influential local rulers exploited this against the court. With riots and lawlessness, there was nowhere for the court to turn but to powerful local lords. The court began granting far-reaching powers to these lords to levy troops of skilled warriors, and to act on their own initiative when disorder threatened. This system grew to favor the strong and the rich.

The 10th century is the time that we first see the term 'samurai', which literally means 'those who serve', being used in purely military context. At first it referred to men who went to the capital to provide guard duty. In time however, it began to denote a military man who served any powerful landlord. The word rapidly acquired a strong aristocratic and hereditary aspect, so the samurai lineages began to be recognized and valued.

The 11th century was a time when particularly strong samurai clans emerged. They were the Taira and the Minamoto, and their exploits dominated Japan for the next 100 years. Samurai from both clans took part on both sides during the Hogen Rebellion of 1156, an armed encounter in Kyoto that was concerned with imperial succession. It was not long before another succession dispute put the Taira and Minamoto in direct opposition. The Taira were victorious in the struggle called the Heiji Rebellion of 1160 and disposed ruthlessly of their rivals.

But in 1180, the survivors of the Minamoto purge, key members of whom had been children spared by the Taira, reopened hostilities at the battle of Uji. This was the first armed conflict in a war that would become known as the Gempei War. The battles of the Gempei War became benchmarks for samurai excellence that were to last for the whole of samurai history. Heroic tales and works of art logged the incidents in the Gempei War as a verbal and visual catalogue of samurai heroism that would show future generations the most noble, brave and correct ways of being a samurai. Nearly all the factors that were to become indelible parts of samurai culture have a reference point somewhere within the Gempei War.

The other way in which the Gempei War made its mark on samurai history lay in the steps the victors took to confirm their triumph. In 1192 Minamoto Yoritomo took the title of shogun. This was the rank that had previously been bestowed temporarily on samurai leaders who had accepted imperial commission to deal with rebels against the throne. But Yoritomo took the title for himself for his new role as military dictator. The difference was that the temporary military commission had now become permanent and was not relinquished until another eight centuries had passed.

Government exercised by the shogun was called the bakufu, a name derived from the maku, the curtains that surrounded a general's headquarters on a battlefield. It was a good name for the new system of ruling that relegated the emperor to the position of figurehead with immense religious power but no political power. The control of Japan's affairs now lay with the leader of the greatest family of samurai.

Source

Samurai: The World of the Warrior by Stephen Turnbull

Origin of the Japanese Imperial Line

Sometime between the third and seventh centuries, out of several rival clans in Japan, one emerged triumphant. The name by which they are known to history is Yamato, the ancestors of the Japanese imperial line.

Very little is known about the historical processes that took place to give power to the Yamato state, although some information has been learned from archeology. Instead the origins of the imperial line are contained in some very colourful legends written down as a series of creation myths when the emperor system had become well established.

These myths are preserved as Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Events) of 712 and the Nihongi (The Chronicles of Japan) of 720. The best-known myth, and the one that is fundamental to understanding the imperial cult, tells how Amaterasu the sun goddess founded the Japanese imperial line when she sent her grandson down from heaven to rule the 'land of luxuriant rice fields'.

The power of these early rulers is vividly illustrated in Japan to this day by the kofun, huge earthen tombs in which they were buried. They date from between the fourth and seventh centuries. They are often keyhole shaped and occupy a huge area of land. Nowadays the kofun are covered in trees, and some of the largest imperial tombs are islands in the middle of a lake. Armour, harness, weapons, bronze mirrors and jewels were buried along with the deceased and have been recovered from some of the tombs that have been excavated.

The actual origin of the dominant Yamato line is still a matter of some controversy. Based on similarities between the grave goods in the kofun tombs and contemporary Korean burials, a theory has been advanced that the first Japanese emperors came from Korea, and asserted their superiority in Japan through their use of mounted warfare, which had not yet been adopted by Japanese warriors. This is known as the 'horse-rider theory'. The notion calls into question the Japanese imperial line, let alone the first emperors' heavenly ancestors. It has therefore never been popular with Japanese nationalists.

Many challenges were made by rival clans against the dominance of the Yamato rulers. All were unsuccessful and, by the seventh century, the imperial line felt sufficiently secure to introduce far-reaching legislative changes for Japan. The Taika reforms of 646 were an ambitious set of edicts that sought to curtail any remaining power possessed by the other surviving clans by making all of Japan subject to the emperor.

One of the first tasks was creating a permanent capital city. This was achieved at Nara in 710. Buddhism, introduced to Japan two centuries earlier, flourished in the settled conditions of Nara. The government of Japan was modeled on Tang China and provided for a stable society. Any dissatisfied clans or trouble from the northern tribesman were dealt with efficiently. Kyoto succeeded Nara as the imperial capital of Japan in 894, a position it was to keep until 1868.

Source: Samurai - The World of the Warrior